Gospel and Gospels

The word Gospel usually designates a written record of Christ's words and

deeds. It is very likely derived from the Anglo-Saxon god (good) and spell (to tell),

and is generally treated as the exact equivalent of the Greek euaggelion (eu well,

aggello, I bear a message), and the Latin Evangelium, which has passed into

French, German, Italian, and other modern languages. The Greek euaggelion

originally signified the "reward of good tidings" given to the messenger, and

subsequently "good tidings". Its other important meanings will be set forth in the

body of the present general article on the Gospels.

(1) Titles of the Gospels

The first four historical books of the New Testament are supplied with titles

(Euaggelion kata Matthaion, Euaggelion kata Markon, etc.), which, however

ancient, do not go back to the respective authors of those sacred writings. The

Canon of Muratori, Clement of Alexandria, and St. Irenæus bear distinct witness

to the existence of those headings in the latter part of the second century of our

era. Indeed, the manner in which Clement (Strom., I, xxi), and St. Irenæus (Adv.

Hær., III, xi, 7) employ them implies that, at that early date, our present titles to

the Gospels had been in current use for some considerable time. Hence, it may

be inferred that they were prefixed to the evangelical narratives as early as the

first part of that same century. That, however, they do not go back to the first

century of the Christian era, or at least that they are not original, is a position

generally held at the present day. It is felt that since they are similar for the four

Gospels, although the same Gospels were composed at some interval from each

other, those titles were not framed, and consequently not prefixed to each

individual narrative, before the collection of the four Gospels was actually made.

Besides, as well pointed out by Prof. Bacon, "the historical books of the New

Testament differ from its apocalyptic and epistolary literature, as those of the Old

Testament differ from its prophecy, in being invariably anonymous, and for the

same reason. Prophecies whether in the earlier or in the later sense, and letters,

to have authority, must be referable to some individual; the greater his name, the

better. But history was regarded as a common possession. Its facts spoke for

themselves. Only as the springs of common recollection began to dwindle, and

marked differences to appear between the well-informed and accurate Gospels

and the untrustworthy . . . did it become worth while for the Christian teacher or

apologist to specify whether the given representation of the current tradition was

'according to' this or that special compiler, and to state his qualifications". It thus

appears that the present titles of the Gospels are not traceable to the

Evangelists themselves.

The first word common to the headings of our four Gospels is Euaggelion, some

meanings of which remain still to be set forth. The word, in the New Testament,

has the specific meaning of "the good news of the kingdom" (cf. Matt., iv, 23;

Mark, i, 15). In that sense, which may be considered as primary from the

Christian standpoint, Euaggelion denotes the good tidings of salvation announced

to the world in connexion with Jesus Christ, and, in a more general way, the

whole revelation of Redemption by Christ (cf. Matt., ix, 35; xxiv, 14; etc.; Mark, i,

14; xiii, 10; xvi, 15; Acts, xx, 24; Rom., i, 1, 9, 16; x, 16; etc.). This was, of

course, the sole meaning connected with the word, so long as no authentic

record of the glad tidings of salvation by Christ had been drawn up. In point of

fact, it remained the only one in use even after such written records had been for

some time received in the Christian Church: as there could be but one Gospel,

that is, but one revelation of salvation by Jesus Christ, so the several records of it

were not regarded as several Gospels, but only as distinct accounts of one and

the same Gospel. Gradually, however, a derived meaning was coupled with the

word Euaggelion. Thus, in his first Apology (c. lxvi), St. Justin speaks of the

"Memoirs of the Apostles which are called Euaggelia", clearing referring, in this

way, not to the substance of the Evangelical history, but to the books

themselves in which it is recorded. It is true that in this passage of St. Justin we

have the first undoubted use of the term in that derived sense. But as the holy

Doctor gives us to understand that in his day the word Euaggelion had currently

that meaning, it is only natural to think that it had been thus employed for some

time before. It seems, therefore, that Zahn is right in claiming that the use of the

term Euaggelion, as denoting a written record of Christ's words and deeds, goes

as far back as the beginning of the second century of the Christian era.

The second word common to the titles of the canonical Gospels is the

preposition kata, "according to", the exact import of which has long been a

matter of discussion among Biblical scholars. Apart from various secondary

meanings connected with that Greek particle, two principal significations have

been ascribed to it. Many authors have taken it to mean not "written by", but

"drawn up according to the conception of", Matthew, Mark, etc. In their eyes, the

titles of our Gospels were not intended to indicate authorship, but to state the

authority guaranteeing what is related, in about the same way as "the Gospel

according to the Hebrews", or "the Gospel according to the Egyptians", does not

mean the Gospel written by the Hebrews or the Egyptians, but that peculiar form

of Gospel which either the Hebrews or the Egyptians had accepted. Most

scholars, however, have preferred to regard the preposition kata as denoting

authorship, pretty much in the same way as, in Diodorus Siculus, the History of

Herodotus is called He kath Herodoton historia. At the present day it is generally

admitted that, had the titles to the canonical Gospels been intended to set forth

the ultimate authority or guarantor, and not to indicate the writer, the Second

Gospel would, in accordance with the belief of primitive times, have been called

"the Gospel according to Peter", and the third, "the Gospel according to Paul".

At the same time it is rightly felt that these titles denote authorship, with a

peculiar shade of meaning which is not conveyed by the titles prefixed to the

Epistles of St. Paul, the Apocalypse of St. John, etc; The use of the genitive

case in the latter titles Paulou Epistolai, Apokalypsis Ioannou, etc.) has no other

object than that of ascribing the contents of such works to the writer whose

name they actually bear. The use of the preposition kata (according to), on the

contrary, while referring the composition of the contents of the First Gospel to St.

Matthew, of those of the second to St. Mark, etc., implies that practically the

same contents, the same glad tidings or Gospel, have been set forth by more

than one narrator. Thus, "the Gospel according to Matthew" is equivalent to the

Gospel history in the form in which St. Matthew put it in writing; "the Gospel

according to Mark" designates the same Gospel history in another form, viz, in

that in which St. Mark presented it in writing, etc. (cf. Maldonatus, "In quatuor

Evangelistas", cap .i).

(2) Number of the Gospels

The name gospel, as designating a written account of Christ's words and deeds,

has been, and is still, applied to a large number of narratives connected with

Christ's life, which circulated both before and after the composition of our Third

Gospel (cf. Luke, i, 1-4). The titles of some fifty such works have come down to

us, a fact which shows the intense interest which centred, at an early date, in

the Person and work of Christ. it is only, however, in connexion with twenty of

these "gospels" that some information has been preserved. Their names, as

given by Harnack (Chronologie, I, 589 sqq.), are as follows: —

1-4. The Canonical Gospels.

5. The Gospel according to the Hebrews.

6. The Gospel of Peter.

7. The Gospel according to the Egyptians

8. The Gospel of Matthias.

9. The Gospel of Philip.

10. The Gospel of Thomas.

11. The Proto-Evangelium of James.

12. The Gospel of Nicodemus (Acta Pilati).

13.The Gospel of the Twelve Apostles.

14.The Gospel of Basilides.

15.The Gospel of Valentinus.

16.The Gospel of Marcion.

17.The Gospel of Eve.

18.The Gospel of Judas.

19.The writing Genna Marias.

20.The Gospel Teleioseos.

Despite the early date which is sometimes claimed for some of these works, it is

not likely that any one of them, outside our canonical Gospels, should be

reckoned among the attempts at narrating the life of Christ, of which St. Luke

speaks in the prologue to his Gospel. Most of them, as far as can be made out

are late productions, the apocryphal character of which is generally admitted by

contemporary scholars (see APOCRYPHA).

It is indeed impossible, at the present day, to describe the precise manner in

which out of the numerous works ascribed to some Apostle, or simply bearing

the name of gospel, only four, two of which are not ascribed to Apostles, came to

be considered as sacred and canonical. It remains true, however, that all the

early testimony which has a distinct bearing on the number of the canonical

Gospels recognizes four such Gospels and none besides. Thus, Eusebius (died

340), when sorting out the universally received books of the Canon, in distinction

from those which some have questioned writes: "And here, among the first, must

be placed the holy quaternion of the Gospels", while he ranks the "Gospel

according to the Hebrews" among the second, that is, among the disputed

writings (Hist. Eccl., III, xxv). Clement of Alexandria (died about 220) and

Tertullian (died 220) were familiar with our four Gospels, frequently quoting and

commenting on them. The last-named writer speaks also of the Old Latin version

known to himself and to his readers, and by so doing carries us back beyond his

time. The saintly Bishop of Lyons, Irenæus (died 202), who had known Polycarp

in Asia Minor, not only admits and quotes our four Gospels, but argues that they

must be just four, no more and no less. He says: "It is not possible that the

Gospels be either more or fewer than they are. For since there are four zones of

the world in which we live, and four principal winds, while the Church is scattered

throughout the world, and the pillar and ground of the Church is the Gospel and

the Spirit of life; it is fitting that we should have four pillars, breathing out

immortality on every side and vivifying our flesh. . . The living creatures are

quadriform, and the Gospel is quadriform, as is also the course followed by the

Lord" (Adv. Hær., III, xi, 8). About the time when St. Irenæus gave this explicit

testimony to our four Gospels, the Canon of Muratori bore likewise witness to

them, as did also the Peshito and other early Syriac translations, and the various

Coptic versions of the New Testament. The same thing must be said with regard

to the Syriac harmony of the canonical Gospels, which was framed by St.

Justin's disciple, Tatian, and which is usually referred to under its Greek name of

Diatessaron (To dia tessaron Euaggelion). The recent discovery of this work has

allowed Harnack to infer, from some of its particulars, that it was based on a still

earlier harmony, that made by St. Hippolytus of Antioch, of our four Gospels. It

has also set at rest the vexed question as to St. Justin's use of the canonical

Gospels. "For since Tatian was a disciple of Justin, it is inconceivable that he

should have worked on quite different Gospels from those of his teacher, while

each held the Gospels he used to be the books of primary importance" (Adeney).

Indeed, even before the discovery of Tatian's "Diatessaron", an unbiased study of

Justin's authentic writings had made it clear that the holy doctor used exclusively

our canonical Gospels under the name of Memoirs of the Apostles.

Of these testimonies of the second century two are particularly worthy of notice,

viz, those of St. Justin and St. Irenæus. As the former writer belongs to the first

part of that century, and speaks of the canonical Gospels as a well-known and

fully authentic collection, it is only natural to think that at his time of writing

(about A. D. 145) the same Gospels, and they only, had been recognized as

sacred records of Christ's life, and that they had been regarded as such at least

as early as the beginning of the second century of our era. The testimony of the

latter apologist is still more important. "The very absurdity of his reasoning

testifies to the well-established position attained in his day by the four Gospels,

to the exclusion of all others. Irenæus' bishop was Potinus who lived to the age

of 90, and Irenæus had known Polycarp in Asia Minor. Here are links of

connexion with the past which go back beyond the beginning of the second

century" (Adeney).

In the writings of the Apostolic Fathers one does not, indeed, meet with

unquestionable evidence in favour of only four canonical Gospels. But this is only

what one might expect from the works of men who lived in the very century in

which these inspired records were composed, and in which the word Gospel was

yet applied to the glad tidings of salvation, and not to the written accounts

thereof.

(3) Chief Differences between Canonical and Apocryphal Gospels

From the outset, the four Gospels, the sacred character of which was thus

recognized very early, differed in several respects from the numerous uncanonical

Gospels which circulated during the first centuries of the Church. First of all, they

commended themselves by their tone of simplicity and truthfulness, which stood

in striking contrast with the trivial, absurd, or manifestly legendary character of

many of those uncanonical productions. In the next place, they had an earlier

origin than most of their apocryphal rivals, and indeed many of the latter

productions were directly based on the canonical Gospels. A third feature in

favour of our canonical records of Christ's life was the purity of their teachings,

dogmatic and moral, over against the Jewish, Gnostic, or other heretical views

with which not a few of the apocryphal gospels were tainted, and on account of

which these unsound writings found favour among heretical bodies and, on the

contrary, discredit in the eyes of Catholics. Lastly, and more particularly, the

canonical Gospels were regarded as of Apostolic authority, two of them being

ascribed to the Apostles St. Matthew and St. John, respectively, and two to St.

Mark and St. Luke, the respective companions of St. Peter and St. Paul. Many

other gospels indeed claimed Apostolic authority, but to none of them was this

claim universally allowed in the early Church. The only apocryphal work which

was at all generally received, and relied upon, in addition to our four canonical

Gospels, is the "Gospel according to the Hebrews". It is a well-known fact that

St. Jerome, speaking of this Gospel under the name of "The Gospel according to

the Nazarenes", regards it as the Hebrew original of our Greek canonical Gospel

according to St. Matthew. But, as far as can be judged from its fragments which

have come down to us, it has no right to originality as compared with our first

canonical Gospel. At a very early date, too, it was treated as devoid of Apostolic

authority, and St. Jerome himself, who states that he had its Aramaic text at his

disposal, does not assign it a place side by side with our canonical Gospels: all

the authority which he ascribes to it is derived from his persuasion that it was the

original text of our First Gospel, and not a distinct Gospel over and above the four

universally received from time immemorial in the Catholic Church.

(4) Order of the Gospels

While the ancient lists, versions, and ecclesiastical writers agree in admitting the

canonical character of only four Gospels, they are far from being at one with

regard to the order of these sacred records of Christ's words and deeds. In early

Christian literature, the canonical Gospels are given in no less than eight orders,

besides the one (St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, St. John) with which we are

familiar. The variations bear chiefly on the place given to St. John, then,

secondarily, on the respective positions of St. Mark and St. Luke. St. John

passes from the fourth place to the third to the second, or even to the first. As

regards St. Luke and St. Mark, St. Luke's Gospel is often placed first, doubtless

as being the longer of the two, but at times also second, perhaps to bring it in

immediate connexion with the Acts, which are traditionally ascribed to the author

of our Third Gospel.

Of these various orders, the one which St. Jerome embodied in the Latin Vulgate,

whence it passed into our modern translations, and even into the Greek editions

of the New Testament, is unquestionably the most ancient. It is found in the

Canon of Muratori, in St. Irenæus, in St. Gregory of Nazianzus, in St.

Athanasius, in the lists of the sacred books drawn up by the Councils of

Laodicea and of Carthage, and also in the oldest Greek uncial Manuscripts.: the

Vatican, the Sinaitic, and the Alexandrine. Its origin is best accounted for by the

supposition that whoever formed the Gospel collection wished to arrange the

Gospels in accordance with the respective date which tradition assigned to their

composition. Thus, the first place was given to St. Matthew's Gospel, because a

very early tradition described the work as originally written in Hebrew, that is, in

the Aramaic language of Palestine. This, it was thought, proved that it had been

composed for the Jewish believers in the Holy Land, at a date when the Apostles

had not yet started to preach the glad tidings of salvation outside of Palestine, so

that it must be prior to the other Gospels written in Greek and for converts in

Greek-speaking countries. In like manner, it is clear that St. John's Gospel was

assigned the last place, because tradition at a very early date looked upon it as

the last in the order of time. As to St. Mark and St. Luke, tradition ever spoke of

them as posterior to St. Matthew and anterior to St. John, so that their Gospels

were naturally placed between those of St. Matthew and St. John. In this way, as

it seems, was obtained the present general order of the Gospels in which we

find, at the beginning, an Apostle as author; at the end, the other Apostle;

between the two, those who have to derive their authority from Apostles.

The numerous orders which are different from the one most ancient and most

generally received can easily be explained by the fact that after the formation of

the collection in which the four Gospels were for the first time united, these

writings continued to be diffused, all four separately, in the various Churches, and

might thus be found differently placed in the collections designed for public

reading. It is likewise easy in most cases to make out the special reason for

which a particular grouping of the four Gospels was adopted. The very ancient

order, for instance, which places the two Apostles (St. Matthew, St. John) before

the two disciples of Apostles (St. Mark, St. Luke) may be easily accounted for

by the desire of paying a special honour to the Apostolic dignity. Again, such an

ancient order as Matthew, Mark, John, Luke, bespeaks the intention of coupling

each Apostle with an Apostolic assistant, and perhaps also that of bringing St.

Luke nearer to the Acts, etc.

(5) Classification of the Gospels

The present order of the Gospels has the twofold advantage of not separating

from one another those Evangelical records (St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke)

whose mutual resemblances are obvious and striking, and of placing at the end

of the list of the Gospels the narrative (that of St. John) whose relations with the

other three is that of dissimilarity rather than of likeness. It thus lends itself well

to the classification of the Gospels which is now generally admitted by Biblical

scholars. St. Matthew, St. Mark, and St. Luke are usually grouped together, and

designated under the common name of the Synoptic Gospels. They derive this

name from the fact that their narratives may be arranged and harmonized,

section by section, so as to allow the eye to realize at a glance the numerous

passages which are common to them, and also the portions which are peculiar

either to only two, or even to only one, of them. The case stands very differently

with regard to our Fourth Gospel. As it narrates but a few incidents in common

with the Synoptists, and differs from them in respect to style, language, general

plan, etc., its chief parts refuse to be included in a harmony such as may be

framed by means of the first three Gospels. While, therefore, the Synoptic

narratives are naturally put together into one group, St. John's record is rightly

considered as standing apart and as, so to speak, making up a class by itself

(see SYNOPTICS).

(6) The Gospels and the Oral Gospel

AlI recent critics admit that the contents of our four Gospels are intimately

connected with more primitive accounts of Christ's life, which may be described,

in a general way, as an Oral Gospel. They are well aware that Jesus Himself did

not consign to writing His own teachings, and directed His Apostles not to write,

but to preach, the Gospel to their fellow-men. They regard as an undoubted fact

that these first disciples of the Master, faithful to the mission which He had

entrusted to them, began, from the day of Pentecost on, boldly to declare by

word of mouth what they had seen and heard (cf. Acts, iv, 2), considering as a

special duty of theirs "the ministry of the word" (Acts, vi, 4). It is plain, too, that

those whom the Apostles immediately selected to help them in the discharge of

this most important mission had to be, like the Apostles themselves, able to

bear witness to the life and teachings of Christ (cf. Acts, i, 21 sq.). The

substance of the Evangelical narratives would thus be repeated viva voce by the

early teachers of Christianity, before any one of them bethought himself to set it

down in writing. It can be readily seen that such Apostolic teaching was then

inculcated in words which tended to assume a stereotyped form of expression,

similar to that which we find in the Synoptic Gospels. In like manner, also, one

can easily realize how the Apostles would not be concerned with the exact order

of events narrated, and would not aim at completeness in telling what they "had

seen and heard". Thus, according to this opinion, was gradually formed what

may be called the "Oral Gospel", that is, a relation of Christ's words and deeds,

parallel, in respect to matter and form, to our canonical Gospels. In view of this,

critics have endeavoured to find out the general contents of this Oral Gospel by

means of the second part of the Book of the Acts, by a study of the doctrinal

contents of the Epistles of St. Paul, and more particularly by a close comparison

of the Synoptic narratives; and it may be freely said that their efforts in that

direction have met with considerable success. As regards, however, the precise

relation which should be admitted between our canonical Gospels and the Oral

Gospel, there is still, among contemporary scholars, a variety of views which will

be set forth and examined in the special articles on the individual Gospels.

Suffice it to say, here, that the theory which regards the canonical Gospels as

embodying, in substance, the oral teaching of the Apostles concerning the words

and deeds of Christ is in distinct harmony with the Catholic position, which

affirms both the historical value of these sacred records and the authoritative

character of the Apostolic traditions, whether these are actually consigned to

writing or simply enforced by the ever living voice of the Church.

(7) Divergences of the Gospels

The existence of numerous and, at times, considerable differences between the

four canonical Gospels is a fact which has long been noticed and which all

scholars readily admit. Unbelievers of all ages have greatly exaggerated the

importance of this fact, and have represented many of the actual variations

between the Evangelical narratives as positive contradictions, in order to disprove

the historical value and the inspired character of the sacred records of Christ's

life. Over against this contention, sometimes maintained with a great display of

erudition, the Church of God, which is "the pillar and ground of the truth" (I Tim.,

iii, 15), has always proclaimed her belief in the historical accuracy and

consequent real harmony of the canonical Gospels; and her doctors (notably

Eusebius of Cæsarea, St. Jerome, and St. Augustine) and commentators have

invariably professed that belief. As can readily be seen, variations are naturally to

be expected in four distinct, and in many ways independent, accounts of Christ's

words and deeds, so that their presence, instead of going against, rather makes

for the substantial value of the Evangelical narratives. From among the various

answers which have been given to the alleged contradictions of the Evangelists

we simply mention the following. Many a time the variations are due to the fact

that not one but two really distinct events are described, or two distinct sayings

recorded, in the parallel passages of the Gospels. At other times, as is indeed

very often the case, the supposed contradictions, when closely examined, turn

out to be simply differences naturally entailed, and therefore distinctly accounted

for, by the literary methods of the sacred writers, and more particularly, by the

respective purpose of the Evangelists in setting forth Christ's words and deeds.

Lastly, and in a more general way, the Gospels should manifestly be treated with

the same fairness and equity as are invariably used with regard to other historical

records.

To borrow an illustration from classical literature, the 'Memoirs' of

the Apostles are treated [by unbelievers] by a method which no

critic would apply to the 'Memoirs' of Xenophon. The [Rationalistic]

scholar admits the truthfulness of the different pictures of Socrates

which were drawn by the philosopher, the moralist, and the man of

the world, and combines them into one figure instinct with a noble

life, half hidden and half revealed, as men viewed it from different

points; but he seems often to forget his art when he studies the

records of the Saviour s work. Hence it is that superficial

differences are detached from the context which explains them. It

is urged as an objection that parallel narratives are not identical.

Variety of details is taken for discrepancy. The evidence may be

wanting which might harmonize narratives apparently discordant;

but experience shows that it is as rash to deny the probability of

reconciliation as it is to fix the exact method by which it may be

made out. If, as a general rule, we can follow the law which

regulates the characteristic peculiarities of each Evangelist, and

see in what way they answer to different aspects of one truth, and

combine as complementary elements in the full representation of it,

we may be well contented to acquiesce in the existence of some

difficulties which at present admit of no exact solution, though they

may be a necessary consequence of that independence of the

Gospels which, in other cases, is the source of their united power

(Westcott).

Catholic authors: MEIGNAN, Les Evangiles et la Critique (Paris, 1870); FILLION, Introd. gén. aux

Evangiles (Paris, 1888); TROCHON ET LESÉTRE, Introd. à l'Ecriture sainte, III (Paris, 1890);

BATIFFOL, Six leçons sur les Evangiles (Paris, 1897); CORNELY, Introd. sp. (Paris, 1897);

JACQUIER, Hist. des Liv. du N. T., II (Paris, 1905); VERDUNOY, L'Evangile (Paris, 1907);

BRASSAC, Manuel biblique, III (Paris, 1908). —

Non-Catholic: WESTCOTT, Introd. to the Study of the Gospels (New York, 1887); WILKINSON, Four

Lectures on the Early History of the Gospels (London, 1898); GODET, Introd. to the New Test. (tr.

New York, 1899); ADENEY, Biblical Introduction (New York, 1904)

FRANCIS E. GIGOT

Transcribed by Douglas J. Potter

Dedicated to the Sacred Heart of Jesus Christ

The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume VI

Nihil Obstat, September 1, 1909. Remy Lafort, Censor

Imprimatur. +John M. Farley, Archbishop of New York

The Catholic Encyclopedia: NewAdvent.org