Introduction to the Bible

A technical name which is usually applied to two distinct, but intimately

connected, things. First, it designates the part of Scriptural science which is

concerned with topics preliminary to the detailed study and correct exposition of

Holy Writ. Next, it is given to a work in which these various topics are actually

treated.

I. SCOPE AND DIVISIONS

As is commonly admitted at the present day, the general object of Biblical

introduction is to supply the student of the sacred books of the Old and New

Testaments with the knowledge which is necessary, or at least very desirable, for

the right interpretation of their contents. Thus understood, the scope of an

introduction to the inspired writings which make up the Bible is substantially that

of an introduction to other writings of antiquity. An introduction helps materially

the student of the text of these writings to know beforehand and in a precise

manner the personal history and actual surroundings of the author to whom each

writing is ascribed, to become acquainted with the date of composition and the

general form and purpose of the works before him, to acquire familiarity with the

leading features of the ancient languages in which the various books were

originally written, to realize distinctly the peculiar literary methods employed in

their composition, to know something of the various fortunes (alterations,

translations, etc.) which have befallen the text in the course of ages, etc. An

introduction, too, whether the work for which it is designed be profane or sacred,

has usually a limited scope. It is not supposed to treat of each and every topic

the knowledge of which might be useful for the right understanding of the books

in question. It is justly regarded as sufficient for all practical purposes, when, by

the information which it actually imparts, it enables the reader of the works of

antiquity to start intelligently on the detailed study of their text. Owing, however,

to the fact that the books of the Bible are not simply ancient, but also inspired,

writings, the scope of Biblical introduction embraces the various questions which

are connected with their inspired character, and which, of course, have no place

in an introduction to merely human productions. For this same reason, too,

certain topics — such as the questions of integrity and veracity — which

naturally belong to treatises preliminary to the study of any ancient writing,

assume a very special importance in Biblical introduction.

Biblical introduction is frequently, and indeed aptly, divided into two parts,

general and special, the former embracing the preliminary questions which

concern the Bible as a whole, the latter being restricted to those which refer to

the separate books of Holy Writ. The field of general introduction has long been,

and is still, surveyed from different standpoints by Biblical scholars. It no longer

embraces a detailed description of the Oriental languages and of the Hellenistic

Greek, but is universally limited, in regard to those languages, to a brief

exposition of their leading characteristics. With regard to the questions which

pertain to the antiquities, geography and chronology of the Bible, some scholars

are still of the opinion that they should be dealt with in a general introduction to

the study of the Holy Scriptures; most, however — and rightly, as it seems —

think that they do not belong to the field of general introduction; the proper place

for such topics is either in special treatises or in the body of works on Biblical

history. Again, a certain number of scholars regard as forming a part of general

introduction the history of God's chosen people, of Divine Revelation, of Biblical

theology, of the religious institutions of Israel. They rightly urge that a previous

acquaintance with that history is invaluable in the pursuit of Biblical exegesis. It

remains true, however, that the study of the historical, doctrinal, etc., contents of

Holy Writ is usually considered outside the sphere of general introduction, and

may be more profitably followed in distinct treatises bearing the respective

names of sacred history, history of Biblical Revelation, Biblical theology, history

of the religion of Israel. It thus appears that, at the present day, the tendency is

to restrict the object of general introduction to a few questions, particularly to

those which help directly to determine the value and meaning of the Sacred

Writings considered as a whole. In point of fact, that object, as conceived

especially by Catholics, is limited to the great questions of the inspired and

canonical character of the Scriptures, their original text and principal translations,

the principles and history of their interpretation. As already stated, special

introduction deals with the preliminary topics which concern the separate books

of the Bible. It is very naturally divided into special introduction to the Old

Testament and special introduction to the New Testament. As the Divine

authority of the books of either Testament is established by the study of the

general introduction to the Bible, so the topics treated in the special introduction

are chiefly those which bear on the human authority of the separate writings of

the Bible. Hence the questions usually studied in connexion with each book or

with a small group of books, such for instance as the Pentateuch, are those of

authorship, unity, integrity, veracity, purpose, source of information, date and

place of composition, etc. Instead of the divisions of Biblical introduction which

have been set forth, numerous writers, particularly in Germany, adopt a very

different grouping of the topics preliminary to the exegetical study of the Sacred

Scriptures. They do away with the division of Biblical introduction into general

and special, and treat of all the questions which they connect with the books of

the Old Testament in an "Introduction to the Old Testament" and of all those

which they examine with reference to the books of the New Testament in an

"Introduction to the New Testament". In either "Introduction" they ordinarily

devote a first section to the topics which refer to the contents, date, authorship,

etc. of the separate books, and a second section to a more or less brief

statement of the canon, text and versions, etc. of the same books considered

collectively. Their distribution of the topics of Biblical introduction leaves no room

for hermeneutics, or scientific exposition of the principles of exegesis, and in this

respect, at least, is inferior to the division of Biblical introduction into general and

special, with its comprehensive subdivisions.

II. NATURE AND METHOD OF TREATMENT

Catholic scholars justly regard Biblical introduction as a theological science.

They are indeed fully aware of the possibility of viewing it in a different light, of

identifying it with a literary history of the various books which make up the Bible.

They distinctly know that this is actually done by many writers outside of the

Church, who are satisfied with applying to the Holy Scriptures the general

principles of historical criticism. But they rightly think that in so doing these

writers lose sight of essential differences which exist between the Bible and

merely human literature, and which should be taken into account in defining the

nature of Biblical introduction. Considered in their actual origin, the sacred books

which make up the Bible have alone a Divine authorship which must needs

differentiate Biblical introduction from all mere literary history, and impart to it a

distinctly theological character. In view of this, Biblical introduction must be

conceived as an historical elucidation, not simply of the human and outward

origin and characteristics of the sacred records, but also of that which makes

them sacred books, viz., the operation of the Holy Ghost Who inspired them.

Again, of all existing literatures, the Bible alone has been entrusted to the

guardianship of a Divinely constituted society, whose plain duty it is to ensure

the right understanding and correct exposition of the written word of God, by

seeing that the topics preliminary to its exegesis be fittingly treated by Biblical

introduction. Whence it readily follows that Biblical introduction is, by its very

nature, a theological discipline, promoting, under the authoritative guidance of the

Church, the accurate knowledge of Divine Revelation embodied in Holy Writ. For

these and for other no less conclusive reasons, Catholic scholars positively

refuse to reduce Biblical introduction to a mere literary history of the various

books which make up the Bible, and strenuously maintain its essential character

as a theological science. While doing so, however, they do not intend in the least

to deny that the topics which fall within its scope should be handled by means of

the historico-critical method. In fact, they distinctly affirm that Biblical

introduction should be both historical and critical. According to them, constant

appeal must be made to history as to a valuable source of scientific information

concerning the questions preliminary to the study of the Bible, and also a

witness whose positive testimony, especially with regard to the origin and the

transmission of the Sacred Books, no one can lightly set aside without laying

himself open to the charge of prejudice. According to them, too, the art of

criticism must be judiciously employed in the study of Biblical introduction. It is

plain, on the one hand, that the science of Biblical introduction can be said to

rest on a solid historical basis only in so far as the data supplied by the study of

the past are correctly appreciated, that is, are accepted and set forth as valid to

the precise extent in which they can stand the test of sound criticism. It is no

less plain, on the other hand, "that nothing is to be feared for the Sacred Books,

from the true advance of the art of criticism; nay more, that a beneficial light may

be derived from it, provided its use be coupled with a real prudence and

discernment" (Pius X, 11 Jan., 1906).

III. HISTORY

As a distinct theological discipline, Biblical introduction is indeed of a

comparatively recent origin. Centuries, however, before its exact object and

proper method of study had been fixed, attempts had been made at supplying

the readers and expositors of Holy Writ with a certain amount of information

whereby they would be more fully prepared for the better understanding of the

Sacred Writings. In view of this, the history of Biblical introduction may be

extended back to the early years of the Church, and made to include three

principal periods: patristic times; Middle Ages; recent period.

(1) Patristic Times

The early ecclesiastical writers were directly concerned with the exposition of

Christian doctrines, so that their works relative to Holy Writ are distinctly

hermeneutical, and present only occasionally some material which may be

utilized for the treatment of the questions which pertain to Biblical introduction.

Of the same general nature are the writings of St. Jerome, although his prefaces

to the various books of Scripture, some of his treatises and of his letters deal

explicitly with certain introductory topics. St. Augustine's important work, "De

Doctrinâ Christianâ", is chiefly a hermeneutical treatise, and deals with only a

few questions of introduction in book II, chapters viii-xv. One of the writers most

frequently mentioned in connexion with the first period in the history of Biblical

introduction is a certain Greek, Adrian (died about A. D. 450), who is probably the

same as the Adrian addressed by St. Nilus as a monk and a priest. He certainly

belonged to the Antiochene school of exegesis, and was apparently a pupil of St.

John Chrysostom. He is the author of a work entitled Eisagoge eis tas Theias

Graphas, "Introduction to the Divine Scriptures", which has indeed supplied the

specific name of introduction for the theological science treating of topics

preliminary to the study of Holy Writ, but which, in fact, is simply a

hermeneutical treatise dealing with the style of the sacred writers and the

figurative expressions of the Bible (P. G., XCVIII). The other principal writers of

that period are: St. Eucherius of Lyons (died about 450), whose two books,

"Instructiones ad Salonium filium", are rather a hermeneutical than an

introductory work; the Benedictine Cassiodorus (died about 562), whose treatise

"De institutione Divinarum Scripturarum" sums up the views of earlier writers and

gives an important list of Biblical interpreters, chiefly Latin; the African bishop

Junilius (died about 552), who belongs to the school of Nisibis, and whose

"Instituta regularia divinæ legis" resembles most a Biblical introduction in the

modern sense of the expression; lastly, St. Isidore of Seville (died 636), whose

"Etymologiæ" and "Proœmia in libros V. et N. Testamenti" supply useful material

for the study of Biblical introduction.

(2) Middle Ages

During this period, as during the one just described, the preoccupations of the

ecclesiastical writers were chiefly doctrinal and exegetical, and their methods of

study had usually little to do with the historico-critical method of investigation by

means of which, as we have seen, questions introductory to the interpretation of

the Bible should be treated. Most of them were satisfied with a mere repetition of

what had been said by St. Jerome, St. Augustine, and Cassiodorus. This they

did in the prefaces which they prefixed to their commentaries on the Sacred

Books, and the purpose of which is directly hermeneutical. The only remarkable

work on introduction produced in the Middle Ages is the one which the Jewish

convert Nicholas of Lyra (died 1340) placed at the beginning of his "Postilla

Perpetua", and in which he treats of the canonical and uncanonical books, the

versions of the Bible, the various senses of Holy Writ, and the rules of

interpretation.

(3) Recent Period

This is by far the most important and most fruitful period in the history of Biblical

introduction. Since the sixteenth century this branch of theological learning has

been more and more cultivated as a distinct science, and has gradually assumed

its present form. The first work of this period was published at Venice, in 1566,

by the Dominican Sixtus of Siena (died 1599). It is entitled "Bibliotheca sancta

ex præcipuis Catholicæ Ecclesiæ auctoribus collecta", and treats in eight books

of the sacred writers and their works, of the best manner of translating and

explaining Holy Writ, and gives a copious list of Biblical interpreters. Among the

Catholic authors on introduction who soon followed Sixtus the following deserve a

special mention: Arias Montanus (died 1598), whose "Prolegomena" in his

Polyglot (Antwerp, 1572) forms a valuable introduction; Salmeron (died 1585),

whose "Prolegomena Biblica" appears in the first volume of his works (Madrid,

1598); Serarius (died 1642) whose "Præloquia" (Antwerp, 1625) was selected by

Migne as the most suitable general introduction with which to begin his "Sacræ

Scripturæ Cursus Completus"; the Oratorian Lami (died 1715), the learned writer

of the "Apparatus ad Biblia sacra" (Paris, 1687); the Benedictine Martianay (died

1717); and the able theologian Ellies Dupin (died 1719). Meantime the

Protestants, somewhat belated by doctrinal bias, brought forth a certain number

of general introductions, among which may be mentioned those of Rivet

(Dordrecht, 1616); Walther (Leipzig, 1636); Calov (Wittenberg, 1643); Brian

Walton (London, 1637); and Heidegger (Zurich, 1681) The first scholar to depart

from the unsatisfactory method of treating topics preliminary to the study of Holy

Writ which had hitherto prevailed, and which had made some of the writings of

his immediate predecessors dogmatic treatises rather than works on Biblical

introduction, was the French Oratorian Richard Simon (1638-1712). According to

him the Sacred Books, no less than the various Biblical translations and

commentaries, are literary products which must bear the impress of the ideas

and the methods of composition prevalent at the time when they were written, so

that, to view and appreciate these works aright, one should study them carefully

in themselves and in the light of the historical events under which they came into

existence. A study at once historical and critical appeared also to him the best

means for disposing of unsound theories, and for vindicating the inspired

character of the Bible, which had been recently impugned by Hobbes and

Spinoza. Hence the name of "Histoire Critique", which he gave to his

epoch-making introductions to the Old Testament (Paris, 1678), to the text

(Rotterdam, 1689), versions (Rotterdam, 1690), and commentaries (Rotterdam,

1693) of the New Testament. Simon's methods and conclusions were at first

strenuously opposed, and afterwards set aside by Catholics and by Protestants

alike. The most noteworthy works of the eighteenth century on introduction, on

the basis of the ancient method, are, among Catholics, those of Calmet (Paris,

1707-20); Goldhagen (Mainz, 1765-68); Fabricy (Rome, 1772); Marchini (Turin,

1777); and Mayer (Vienna, 1789); and, among Protestants, those of Hody

(Oxford, 1705); Carpzov (Leipzig, 1721-28); J. D. Michaelis (Göttingen, 1750;

Hamburg, 1787).

The true method of Biblical introduction set forth and applied by Simon was not

destined, however, to be discarded forever. The rationalists were the first to use

it, or rather to abuse it, for their anti-dogmatic purposes. Ever since the latter part

of the eighteenth century, they, and those more or less affected by rationalistic

tendencies, have very often openly, and at times with rare ability, treated Biblical

introduction as a mere literary history of the Sacred Writings. As belonging to the

critical school, the following writers on introductory topics may be mentioned:

Semler (died 1791); Eichhorn (died 1827); de Wette (died 1849); Bleek (died

1859); Vatke (died 1882); Riehm (died 1888); Kuenen (died 1891); Reuss (died

1891); Scholten; Hilgenfeld; Wellhausen; W. R. Smith (died 1894); S. Davidson

(died 1898); Strack; Wildeboer; E. Kautzsch; F. E. Koenig; Jülicher; Cornill;

Baudissin; H. Holtzmann; Bacon; Budde; Cheyne; Kent; Moffatt; Von Soden;

Pfleiderer; to whom may be added, as occupying in the main similar positions,

B. Weiss; Salmon; Driver; A. B. Davidson (died 1902); Curtiss (died 1904);

Ottley; Kirkpatrick; Ryle; Briggs; Bennett; Adeney; C. H. H. Wright; McFayden;

and Geden. The following are the principal Protestant writers who meantime have

striven to stay the progress of the critical school by treating the questions of

Biblical introduction on conservative lines: Hengstenberg (died 1869); Hofmann

(died 1877); Hävernick (died 1845); Keil (died 1888); Bissell; Gloag; Godet (died

1900); Westcott (died 1902); Harman; Sayce; Sanday; Green (died 1900); Dods;

Kerr; Burkitt; Zahn; Mackay; Urquhart; and Orr.

During the same period Catholics have produced numerous works on Biblical

introduction, and used in them, in various degrees, the historico-critical method

of investigation. These works may be briefly given under four general heads, as

follows:

General Introduction to Holy Writ: Dixon, "Intr. to the Sacred Scriptures"

(Dublin, 1852); Trochon, "Introd. générale" (Paris, 1886-87); Chauvin,

"Leçons d'Int. générale" (Paris, 1897); Breen, "General and Critical Introd.

to the Holy Scripture" (Rochester, 1897); Gigot, "General Introd. to the H.

Script." (New York, 1899); Telch, "Intr. Generalis in Scripturam Sacram"

(Ratisbon, 1908).

General and Special Introd. to both Testaments: Alber, "Institutiones

Scrip. Sac. Antiq. et Novi Test." (Budapest, 1801-08); Scholz, "Allgem.

Einleit. in die heilige Schrift des A. und N. T." (Cologne, 1845-48); Glaire,

"Introd. historiq. et critiq. aux Livres de l'A. et du N. T." (Paris, 1838-);

Haneberg, "Geschichte der bibl. Offenbarung als Einleitung ins alte und

neue Testam." (Ratisbon, 1849); Gilly, "Préeis d'Introd. générale et

particulière à l'Ecrit. Ste" (Nimes, 1867); Lamy, "Introd. in Sac.

Scripturam" (Mechlin, 1867); Danko, "Hist. Revelationis divinæ V. T." (

Vienna, 1852); Idem, "Hist. Rev. divinæ N. T." ( Vienna, 1867); Kaulen,

"Einleitung in die heilige Schrift des A. und N. T." (Freiburg im Br., 1876);

Vigouroux and Bacuez, "Manuel Biblique" (Paris, 1879); Ubaldi, "Introd. in

Sacr. Script." (Rome, 1877-81); Cornely, "Introd. historica et critica in U.

T. libros" (Paris, 1885-87); Trochon and Lesêtre, "Introd. à l'Etude de

l'Ecrit. Sainte" (Paris, 1889-90); Barry, "The Tradition of Scripture" (New

York, 1906).

Special Introd. to the Old Testament: Jahn, "Einleit. in die göttliche

Bücher des A. Bundes" (Vienna, 1793); Ackermann, "Introd. in lib. sacros

V. Test." (Vienna, 1825-9); Herbst, "Hist. Krit. Einleitung in die heilige

Schriften des A. T." (Karlsruhe, 1840-44); Reusch, "Lehrbuch der Einl. in

das A. T." (Freiburg im Br., 1864); Zschokke, "Hist. sacra V. T." (Vienna,

1872); Neteler, "Abriss der alttest. Literaturgeschichte" (Münster, 1870);

Martin, "Intr. à la Critique générale do l'A. T." (Paris, 1886-89); Schöpfer,

'Gesch. des A. T." (Brixen, 1894); Gigot, "Special Intr. to O. T." (New

York, 1901, 1906).

Special Introduct. to the New Testament: Feilmoser, "Einl. in die Bücher

des N. Bundes" (Innsbruck, 1810); Unterkircher, "Einl. in die B. des N. T."

(Innsbruck, 1810); Hug, "Einl. in die heil. Schriften des N. T." (Tübingen,

1808); Reithmayer "Einl. in die kanonisch. B. des N. T." (Ratisbon, 1852);

Maier, "Einl. in die Schrif. des N. T." (Freiburg im Br., 1852); Markf,

"Introd. in sacros libros N. T." (Budapest, 1856); Güntner, "Introd. in

sacros N. T. libros" (Prague, 1863); Langen, "Grundriss der Einleitung das

N. T." (Freiburg im Br., 1868); Aberle, "Einl. in das N. T." (Freiburg im Br.,

1877); Trenkle, "Einl. in das N. T." (Freiburg im Br., 1897); Schaefer,

"Einl. in das N. T." (Paderborn, 1898); Belser, "Einl. in das N. T."

(Freiburg im Br., 1901); Jacquier, "Histoire des Livres du N. T." (Paris,

1904-08); Brassac, "Nouveau Testament" (Paris, 1908, 1909), twelfth

recast edition of vols. III and IV of Vigouroux's "Manuel Biblique".

From among the introductory works recently published by Jewish scholars the

following may be mentioned: J. Fürst, "Geschichte der biblischen Literatur und

des judisch-hellenistischen Schriftens" (Leipzig, 1867-70); Cassel, "Geschichte

der judischen Literatur" (Berlin, 1872-73); J. S. Bloch, "Studien zur Geschichte

der Sammlung der A. Literatur" (Leipzig, 1875); A. Geiger, "Einleitung in die

biblischen Schriften" (Berlin, 1877); Wogue, "Histoire de la Bible et de l'Exégèse

biblique jusqu'à nos jours" (Paris, 1881). Besides the separate works on Biblical

introduction which have been mentioned, valuable contributions to that branch of

Scriptural science are found in the shape of articles in the Dictionaries of the

Bible and the general encyclopedias already published or yet issuing.

FRANCIS E. GIGOT

Transcribed by Douglas J. Potter

Dedicated to the Immaculate Heart of the Blessed Virgin Mary

The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume VIII

Nihil Obstat, October 1, 1910. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor

Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York

The Catholic Encyclopedia: newadvent.org